Views of Abdul Hamid II on politics and religion

When Abdul took over power, the European countries had already influenced the Ottoman Empire with secularization taking place in many sectors of the territory including politics and culture of the people. However, he immediately abolished the western culture by advocating for all Muslims and even for non-Muslims to join them into one Islamic state.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Views of Abdul Hamid II on politics and religion specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More He had ambitious objectives by uniting the Muslims because he had planned to them and the religion to enable him gain political powers especially over the European powers such as Russia. For instance, Abdul emphasized on counteraction of Russia’s efforts to influence the Balkans to free themselves from the Ottoman empire and join Christianity. However, his efforts failed as many Balkans were lost to the Europeans. He detested the Europeans and their Christianity such that he gave the Muslim leaders more powers so that they can be able to claim the Muslim population from the Europeans. Under the influence of Abdul, the unconverted Muslims became more reluctant to join Christianity but rather supported Abdul in his political activities. The presence of the European nations in the empire became a driving force for Pan-Islamism making it difficult for the Europeans to secularize the territory. However, the sultan later took over the position of Caliph as he was so determined to counter the secularization process in his empire. This gave him the opportunity to regain the powers of the Muslim leaders that had been lost due to the reforms that had taken place before he took over power. It is clear that sultan Abdul detested secularism n that is why he mobilized all Muslims against it not only to regain their culture but also to gain popularity politically especially in the European nations. Relations between Abdul and the European pow ers The relations between the Ottoman Empire and most European nations was not so easy but rather strained especially between France, Russia and UK. In his own opinion, Abdul demanded that his empire be treated as having equal powers with these European nations especially due to its high numbers of Muslims compared to Christians. Even though the sultan viewed his empire as modern, the Europeans always saw the empire as being uncivilized. However, Abdul had a different opinion of the Germans as he viewed them as possible allies to his empire. Abdul therefore developed a good relationship with the Germans as his empire hosted a number of German political leaders several times and some Germans were employed to help in reorganization of the empire as well with most of them being assigned to reorganize the finance sector of the empire. This made him to distrust his very own ministers and other political leaders as on the other hand, he promoted German’s friends especially with the construction of railways to allow accessibility of the empire and giving loans to the Germans to start operating in the Ottoman Empire. As this friendship continued and intensified, Abdul went to the extremes of giving Germans the Baghdad railway which they had always desired.Advertising Looking for essay on asian? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The result of Abdul’s actions towards Germans was the occurrence of World War I which was facilitated by the accessibility of the railway in question. Despite the fact that the empire had allied with German during the war, they were defeated and this became the cause of the empire’s fall during which time it dismantled (Chouinard, 2009, p. 1). Abdul’s conflicts with the Armenians Ever since sultan Abdul took over power, he always had low opinions of the Armenians as he described them as being from a lesser province which had been accused of many wrong doings. Und er Abdul’s rule, the Armenians were not able to exercise their rights like the other Ottoman civilians and this drove some Armenians especially those who were living in Europe and Russia to form association meant to fight for the right of their brothers back at home. Abdul even hired a military to deal with the Armenians in whatever way they wanted to including killing them. He also used his officials to oppress the Armenians especially in taxation rates. However, the Armenians were successful in their fight against the sultan’s regime which saw Abdul required to sign an agreement meant to terminate the oppression towards the Armenians. Despite all these efforts by the Armenians, the signed agreement was, however, never implemented and this made the Armenians gather to request for its implementation but sultan Abdul could not allow them so he sent Ottoman police to disperse the crowd. Soon after this, the Armenian killings occurred where a large number of Armenians wer e killed. As the empire’s sultan, Abdul II did not put efforts to try and stop the massacre and this failure to take action towards such humanity as well as his opinion towards the Armenians made him a primary suspect in ordering the killings although there was no prove that he did. This made Abdul appear as a dangerous assassin to the Europeans as well as a bloody sultan to the Armenians. Changes in the Ottoman Empire during Abdul’s rule Despite the fact that secularization by the European had already occurred when Abdul took over power as the sultan of the Ottoman Empire, he was able to get back the powers that the Muslim leaders had before the modernization. However, through his reforms, he destroyed the empires financial status leaving no public finances in the treasury something that the Europeans had improved for the better. As a result, national debts increased drastically and this forced him to seek assistance from foreigners in order to settle the debts. With time, the empire’s financial accounts were given over to the foreigners who had large bond shares in the empire’s revenue.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Views of Abdul Hamid II on politics and religion specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Abdul could be said to be selfish because during his succession as the sultan, he got to a point where he reduced the powers of his ministers to low levels such as secretary positions and took the administration of the Ottoman Empire all to himself so that he could control the every aspect of the empire. As a result, general disagreements within the empire increased especially with the Armenians and Greeks who lived in the Empire not satisfied with Abdul’s rule and decisions. Due to his desire to have authority over the empire and to bring in a new constitution made him loose trust in the supporters of reforms on the Ottoman navy and he ended up locking the l argest fleet in the Ottoman empire something which made his territory lose its territories overseas not only during his time as the sultan but even afterwards. Basically, the economy as well as the social life of the Ottoman people was destroyed during Abdul II’s rule as the sultan of the empire (Ahmed, 2010, p. 1). Reference List Ahmed, N. (2010). Sultan Abdul Hamid II. Retrieved from https://historyofislam.com/contents/resistance-and-reform/sultan-abdul-hamid-ii/ Chouinard, A. (2009). A response to Tanzimat: Sultan Abdul Hamid II and Pan-Islamism. Retrieved from http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/252/a-response-to-tanzimat-sultan-abdul-hamid-ii-and-pan-islamism This essay on Views of Abdul Hamid II on politics and religion was written and submitted by user Keith Ashley to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

United States and Taiwan Education System Reform †Education Essay

United States and Taiwan Education System Reform – Education Essay Free Online Research Papers United States and Taiwan Education System Reform Education Essay In both United States, and Taiwan, education accounts a large portion of public government expenditure and gross domestic product. In Taiwan, the education spending was 19.76 percent of government spending and 4.6 percent of gross domestic product in 2002. Table 1 and table 2 show the public expenditures on education as a percentage of total public expenditure or of GDP in U.S., and Taiwan. The government investment in education is important, because the education is the way that ensures the national global comparativeness, and nation performance. The investment in education does not mean throwing as much money as government can. Government should invest money in education wisely, which means the government should spend money on education in term to improve its weaknesses. Charter school was an innovative education practice that was brought up to the education reform in U.S., where government can spend its education expenditure wisely. Overall, the charter school program is beneficial to the education system in United States. Learning the charter school in U.S. could bring some knowledge to education reform in Taiwan. Background of Charter Schools as School Choice in U.S. Education Reform The education expenditure is primarily a State and local responsibility in the United States. This structure of education finance in U.S. reflects the predominant State and local role, where States and communities can establish schools and colleges, develop all courses, and determine requirements for enrollment and graduation. For the school year 2004 to 2005, of an estimated 909 billion dollars being spent nationwide on education at all levels, and about 90 percent came from State, local, and other private sources. Even the Federal contribution to nation education expenditure only counts a small portion; it still plays a role in the education system. The Federal role in education as a kind of emergency response system, which means it fills gaps in State and local support for education when critical national needs arise. As the analysis states in the introduction that U.S. has spent an increased portion of government expenditure in education from year to year in the past decade. This increased portion did not accompany with an increased education performance. Some researches have showed that student’s education achievement in U.S. was placed at the bottom compared to other OECD countries and non-OECD countries. Table 3 and tables 4 show the education achievements in different academic area by country. Also, the research had showed that student global comparativeness in U.S. was place in bottom third in an international study. Under this spending more and lower performance situation, school choice was created as an education reform. School choice is part of the strategy to give every child an excellent education with wisely spending money on education. Somehow school choice can be defined as empowering parents to select the educational environment they feel is best for their children, and in o ther words, school choice is parental choice. Also, school choice program is primarily comprised of tools that allow students to attend any public schools within or outside of their local school district. Hence, a lot of tools had developed in the charter school program to achieve those goals, and one of them is the charter school. Charter schools, initiated in 1992 and was firstly introduced by Minnesota State, have played an immerse role in U.S. education reform. As of October 2005, there had been authorized in 40 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico, and nearly 3,600 charter schools are operating across the United States, serving close to one million students in these locations. Charter school is the new pioneering work under the U.S. education system, and it is the product under the education reform that emphasizes on deregulation and flexibility. Charter schools are independent public schools, privately management and publicly government funded, designed to encourage innovative education practice, and provide choices for parents and greater accountability for results. Charter schools, which have no difference from public schools, can not deny admission of any student as long as seats are available. Charter schools allow parents, community leaders, educational entrepreneurs, and others the fle xibility to innovate and provide students with increased educational options within the public system. Under this phenomenon, charter schools are freed from many state statutory and regulatory requirements of public schools, and state legislations give charter schools a high degree of autonomy over the system of charter school. In exchange for this increased autonomy, charter schools are held accountable for improving students’ academic achievement. In other words, the objective of charter schools is to replace rules-based governance with performance-based accountability. Again, charter school is primarily funded by State and local, where teachers, parents, community groups or private organizations want to apply a charter school should write the proposal that includes the organization and management of the school and standards, assessments and curriculums to state education department. Once get approved and granted, they receive up to 3 to 5 years of assistance, in period tha t the charter schools have to achieve the terms of their charter. Under several years operating, there are a growing number of people find interesting, and researches show positives confirmation of charter school program. First one is that researchers found charter school could help State meet budget challenges. Charter school program is one of the education reforms that could save money and provide improved education service. Due to the flexibility of the charter schools, schools can be established at any existing capital units, like factories, offices, and grocery stores. The usage of the existing capital as charter school, can save the expense of building additional school spaces, though reduce the spending on charter school plans. According to recent surveys of the nation’s charter schools, the average per pupil cost is $4,507, which is significantly less than the $7,000 average in traditional public schools, and charters are forced to use that money to underwrite facilities costs not included in traditional public schools’ opera ting budgets. From the study of school finance in Dayton, the research showed that the ten charter schools included in this analysis received $7,510 per pupil in 2001 to 2002 while the Dayton public school system received $10,802, not counting capital funds for the construction and renovation of building, funds now showering down in vast sums upon the system, though not on charter schools. Another positive affirmation for charter school is that the existing of charter schools can induce the competition with public schools. From my point of view, the competition situation is based on the greater achievements of charter school which will attract more students to enroll, and the money flows away from public schools. Decreasing enrollments in public schools is accompanied with losing funds. Thus most likely, public schools will respond to competition from charter schools by raising their pupil’s achievement. In the form of competition, public schools will improve its productivity and quality, and this improvement benefits to students. Small class size is another positive factor of charter school. Research had showed that public schools usually have higher student to teacher ratio compared with charter schools. Table 5 shows the students to teachers ratio for charter schools and public schools. From the table, the outcome is that class sizes at charter schools were likely to be smaller when compared to other public schools at schools that served younger students. Charter schools that served high-school students tended to have class sizes that were the same or larger than other public schools. Overall, the lower students to teachers ratio is a positive factor of students to academic achievement. Education Reform Proposal in Taiwan Summary Charter school is an innovative education practice, which has some significant specialties. First, charter school’s role in the education reform is independent public school, which qualified with pubic school characters as equitable and low tuition fee, and qualified with private school character as emphasized on management outcomes. Second, charter school works under great autonomy, and flexibilities that are accountable with education. Third, the competition induced by the charter school motivates public schools on improving its productivity and quality. The education spending on charter school is lower compared to public school. Research Papers on United States and Taiwan Education System Reform - Education EssayStandardized TestingInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationResearch Process Part OnePETSTEL analysis of IndiaPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyHip-Hop is ArtBringing Democracy to AfricaRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andQuebec and Canada

If you could be anyone in history, who would it be and why Essay

If you could be anyone in history, who would it be and why - Essay Example Florence Nightingale was one such woman who performed extraordinary services for mankind in an era when sexism was a major sociological issue but she did not get bound by societal norms and she moved ahead to serve the human race. If I could be anyone in the history of this world, I would opt to be Florence Nightingale. This is because her services can never be forgotten and her name is linked with the profession of nursing and it is the first name to come in the mind of a person when he thinks about the hospital industry.  Florence Nightingale was in the true meaning a woman of spirit. She was a bold lady who could have lived in luxuries for her entire life owing to the fact that she belonged to a rich family. But she chose to perform a greater role of helping the beings in suffering. She carried out an exemplary role by assisting wounded soldiers during the war which was a very difficult task at that time owing to the lack of resources. She came over all the obstacles that came i n her way and proved the fact that determination can make a person achieve anything. She was the first nurse and she laid the block for the creation of the profession of nursing which is one of the most important fields required for the health industry in today’s world. Therefore, seeing her strong character and her determination in her field of choice I would have really wanted to be in her place. I would have wanted to be remembered in the same way as she is in the world today owing to the exemplary good acts that she performed.

Presentation PowerPoint Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

PowerPoint Presentation Example Dependency theory takes this a step ahead and identifies the relationship between the dependency on a particular type of media and the number of needs it fulfills for a person. Higher dependency on the media also results in higher influence and power of that media on that individual. This is in line with the Agenda Setting theory. Combination of these theories results in the Dependency theory preposition: As a persons dependency on media increases to fulfill needs, that media becomes more and more important to that person At a conceptual level this theory gives an integrated outlook of audiences, media and social system. The degree on dependence on media is governed by two factors (Dependency Theory, 2004). First, the number of needs satisfied by a media; more needs satisfied, more you are dependent on that media. Second, social conditions; if there is a situation of social conflict or change then media is depended on to make choices/decisions. However, apart from these factors there are several external factors that can influence a person’s choice of media such as culture, social context etc. These factors that are not under the control of an individual act as constraints on the choice and degree of media usage. Increasing involvement of audience in information processing relayed/published by media can result in a three-fold effect – Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral (Dependency Theory, 2004). Dependency theory is applicable to mass media at micro, meso, and macro levels. Scope of application includes individuals, interpersonal networks, organizations, social systems and societies. One of the critiques for this theory initially argued that information shared by interpersonal networks is not accounted for. This is not a strong critique as even in these networks someone would have picked up the information from media only (Lindsay Ems, 2008). This theory has some features that make it widely

The Islamic Concept Of Charity Religion Essay

The Islamic Concept Of Charity Religion Essay Charity in Islam has been a central focus of the society. It has different forms (zakat and sadqah) which differ from each other. The charity in Islam gives an impression of the purification and worship of God. It is also perceived as good deed and benevolence in the Islamic theology. Islamic charity gives a notion of the welfare of the humanity. The crux of the charity is to form a moral economy which regulates the behaviour of Muslims. The moral economy is based on the fairness, sense of responsibility and purity in worship and welfare of the people. 1. Introduction The contemporary debate of the charity has been long in the literature (Melvin 2009, Ferrari and Khan 2010, Shirazi 1996, Scott 1987 and Waldron 1986). Specifically, the religious zeal and zest revolves around the notion of charity (Iwobi 2009). Islamic concept of charity is not exception for that debate (Scott 1987). It emphasizes on the moral values and the contribution to the neglected segment o f the society. However, Islamic concept of charity has never been debated in the light of the notion of moral economy. This paper is intended to give a comparative view about the different notions of the Islamic charity (zakat and sadqah). The concept of charity, in general, is not new because every religion of the world preached that charity. However, the focus of this paper is to highlight the forms of charity in Islam, their differences and their impact on the multiculturalism and the formation of the moral economy. The definition of charity in Islamic tradition differs somewhat from its interpretation in different contexts. However, its aim and goals remain the same. The Quran states: And be steadfast in your prayer and pay charity; whatever good you send forth for your future, you shall find it with Allah, for Allah is well aware of what you do . Similarly, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said: No wealth (of a servant of Allah) is decreased because of charity. Charity is the fifth pillar of Islam and its reward will be given in the after world. The Quran declare the five basic concept of the zakat. These concepts included: infaq (spending benevolently), Ihsan (kindness), zakah (purification), sadqah (charitable deed) and Khayrat (good deeds). However, Islam does not force anyone to give charity. It is obligatory in the form of zakat and voluntary in the shape of sadqah (charity). 2. Basic concepts of charity in Islam Islamic charity has two basic concepts: zakat and sadaqah. 2.1 Zakat (alms giving) The zakat extracted from the word zaka to be pure that denotes purification. Quran highlights to the purification of wealth and states: Of their wealth take alms to purify and sanctify them. Zakat is an obligation on a Muslim. It is moral duty of a Muslim to pay Zakat at the rate of 2.5% per year. A Muslim cannot deny the ZakatI. Quran lists recipients of Zakat which includes: Zakat is for the poor and the needy and those who are employed to administer and collect it, and for those whose hearts are to be won over, and for the freeing of human beings from bondage, and for those who are overburdened with debts and for every struggle in Gods cause, and for the wayfarers: this is a duty ordained by God, and God is the All-Knowing, the Wise. (Al-Quran 9:60). 2.2 Sadaqah (Charity) The word Sadaqah is derived from the Arabic root verb sadaqah which means to be truthful and hence Sadaqah implies engaging in any righteous act in order to earn the mardat (pleasure) of Allah. The sadaqah has certain principals which a Muslim must follow. One, Sadaqah is given on the name of God. Second, the money or the donation should be from the legal sources. Islamic discourages the illegitimate (stolen or unethically gained) money or resources. Third, surplus money (beyond the need of a person) is the money of God and Muslims are custodian of it. They should spend and return the money to the needy, poor and spend on the ways of God. Quran outlines the charity: Those who (in charity) spend of their goods by night and by day, in secret and in public, have their reward with their Lord: on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve. (Al-Baqarah 2:274). It further highlights: And spend something (in charity) out of the substance which We have bestowed on you, before Death should come to any of you and he should say, O my Lord! Why didst Thou not give me respite for a little while? I should then have given (largely) in charity, and I should have been one of the doers of good. But to no soul will Allah grant respite when the time appointed (for it) has come; and Allah is well acquainted with (all) that ye do. (Al-Munafiqun 63: 10-11). Further Quran states: And they feed, for the love of Allah, the indigent, the orphan, and the captive. We feed you for the sake of Allah alone: no reward do we desire from you, nor thanks. (Al Insà ¢n 76:8-9). In another statement, the Quran states: For those who give in Charity, men and women, and loan to Allah a Beautiful Loan, it shall be increased manifold (to their credit), and they shall have (besides) a liberal reward. (Al Hadà ®d 57:18). Sadaqah is important for a number of purses. It reduces the sins and increases the virtue of a Muslim. It also compensate for shortcoming in any past payment of Zakah. For instance, if a person forgets to pay zakat in the past or was guilty to pay the zakat, the sadaqah reduces the burden of the past. Sadqah, give a sense of protection not only the giver but also to the receiver of falling victim of calamities. God pleasure is received through the sadqah. It gives pleasure to the giver of the charity to the others. A person feels his obligation to the betterment of the humanity. 3. Difference between Zakat and Sadaqah Zakat and Sadaqah are two different kinds of charities in Islamic ideology. Zakat is the obligatory annual almsgiving which is determined on the basis of the value of ones wealth. It is 2.5% as per Islamic traditions. Accroding to some of the Islamic jurists, zakat must be collected from the Muslims. It is mandatory and has strict zeal to pay the zakat. Zakat is the responsibility of the person who owns wealth. It cannot be transferred to the second person. It is liable on the individual. However, the sadaqah is charity that is given beside the Zakat contribution over the surplus wealth. It is volunteer act and without any percentage. Sadqah is not specified as only monetary terms (feeding the poor and the needy), but also given support to the orphans, widows in the form of advising or counseling. It also includes the volunteer activities for the befit of the community at larger: teaching to the poor, giving sense of good faith and advising them to excel on the right path, the path of God. Some of the Islamic jusrits beleieved that to form charity organization, construct educational institutions (mosque, school, college, universities) and construction of well (to supply water to the common man) are the different forms of sadaqah. It can be given on the name of any relative (parents or children). 4. Comparative view of charity: Development of moral economy Islamic notion of charity (in its different forms) generates a moral economy. This is the economy which is based on the good faith and welfare of the humanity. In line with Bollig (1998) and Thompsons (1971, 1993) notion of moral economy. Islamic charity gives the following notion of charity. 4.1 Islamic charity: Moral injection Benthall (1999) highlights the Quranic injection to charity. Accroding to Benthall the Islamic system of almsgiving (zakat) is more organized than other societies. For him, the ZakatI is closely associated with the prayers and the worship of God, therefore, the Muslim are morally obliged to pay the Zakat to the poor, to the needy as per Islamic conception. He argued that Zakat can be distributed in poor, needy, orphans, widows, divorcees, prisoners and their families, unemployed and homeless people, students, those who dont afford to marry, disaster victims, and those in need of free medicine or dignified funerals (Benthall 1999:31). 4.2 Zakat: Powerful instrument to poverty eradication Zakat which literally means growth, extension and purification is a premium on all forms of accumulated productive wealth and on a variety of agriculture produce. It is calculated at various rate according to the nature of the asset or product, and is due to the needy of the Muslim community. It is one of the basic tenets of Islam and besides being an obligatory act of worship, it is a system through which a Muslim society can eradicate poverty and inequalities (Mohammad 1991:1119). Islamic Zakat system in Pakistan is the source to eradicate poverty in the country (Ibid). Zakat system is well organized system for the development of country but it can be more organized for poverty eradication and for the maintenance of society (Mohammad 1991). 5.3 Charity: Road towards the social justice According to Bremer (2004:1) the development of any society local resources are necessary. Historically, Islamic societies developed a range of charitable institutions to fulfill these mandates include zakat boards, auwkaf, and diverse local structures reflecting the richness of Islamic culture from Dakar to Davao (Ibid). For her, A strong civil society is now widely recognized as an important pillar supporting democratic society (Bremer 2004:2). With the help and struggle of civil society it is possible that a democratic society can be established. Only the help of foreign donor and government is not enough for development. If government or foreign donors will help the society the civil society will lose their interest for the development. For her, in recent years USAID has funded the creation of an NGO service center that provides technical assistance and training to civil society organizations, and has granted financial support directly to NGOs ranging from business associations to community development groups (Bremer 2004:3). Government, foreign donor and for free services do not provide an adequate base for a vibrant civil society. This aid is for short term. This aid is not compatible with the long term independence (Bremer 2004). 4.4 Charity: Funding for free education According to Blanchard (2007) religious school work as a charity organization in Muslim countries. They are source of providing education to the vulnerable groups. Madrasas offer a free education, room, and board to their students, and thus they appeal to impoverished families and individuals. On the whole these religious schools are supported by private donations from Muslim believers through a process of alms-giving known in Arabic as zakat. The practice of zakatone of the five pillars of the Islamic faithprescribed that a fixed proportion of ones income be given to specified charitable causes, and traditionally a portion of zakat has endowed religious education (2007:4). Blanchard (2007) provides information that in Pakistan Madrasas are being observed by the government regarding their finance sources after 9/11 attack in the United States. All foreign students in madrasas were required to expel from madrasa if they did not obtain permission to remain in Pakistan from their home governments in 2005. Madrasas are registered in Pakistan and their financial assistance is observed by the government since August 2006. (Blanchard 2007:5). Zakat and usher contributed to the income of the people of 2.7% in a household of Pakistan (Shirazi 1996). The survey was conducted in 1990/91 of the household Integrated Economic Survey and findings revealed that the Zakat and usher were the significant to contribute the lives of the people. According to the survey, 39000 zakat committees were working with 250 thousand volunteers (Shirazi 1996:166). The zakat contribution on 1981/1982 from 845.85 million Pakistani rupees to 4655.9 million in 1993/94 (Shirazi 1996:170). The money were spend to Substance allowance (708.622 million), rehabilitation (245.669 million) Pakistani rupees and 1738234 people benefited from the zakat contribution (Shirazi 1996:185). However, the latest figures on the issue are not available. 5. Why Muslim countries depend upon the foreign aid? There is wide spread opportunity to get resources in order to feed the marginalized segment of the society, as per the notion of Islamic charity, then why the Muslim countries are dependent upon foreign aid? In fact, there are two major reasons of the dependency of the Muslim societies on the foreign aid. 5.1 Collapse of the charity institution: Change to moral values Muslim countries depend upon the foreign aid because they were unable to maintain their institutions. Such institutions were collapsed during the colonization or soon after. In the eyes of the colonial masters, the Muslim charity institutions were the symbol of Muslim legacy and a risen of the rise of the Muslim powers, therefore, it was necessary to abolish them. They developed the institution of welfare instead the zakat institution (Bremer 2004). However, this welfare institution developed by the colonial powers was perceived as not ones own. It was considered as a symbol to get money, but without any legacy (Bremer 2004). It was just perceived as the symbol of the colony. People wanted to get benefited from the social welfare but not were ready to pay back. Therefore, it was not much institutionalized as the Zakat was spread during the Muslim era in the Middle East and in the Muslim countries. 5.2 Collapse of morality: Change to develop a new morality based on materialism Islam appreciates the giving hands (charity giver) and discourages the charity recipients. According to Islam, giving hand is better than receiving hand. However, current scenario does not reflect the basic ideology of the charity of Islam. Despite of the fact that zakat remain as an institution among the Muslim societies at individual level. However, it was not developed up to the level after the colonial era. It was perceived that state is in the hands of someone else and there was not any institutionalized method of the zakat collection and distribution. This collapsed the real notion of the moral economy among the Muslim societies. In Islamic morality, there are two sets of rights and obligation of a Muslim: the rights to worship God and the right to serve the humanity. In Islamic theology, the right of God may be put aside by the God, if He wants. However, the right to serve humanity cannot be neglected until unless the fellow human beings do not forgive it. It is exclusive the people who have to forgive their rights to the fellow Muslims. So the Islamic moral values exclusive emphasize on this value. However, the collapse of the Islamic morality is dominated. It does contradict on the basic philosophy of the Islam that spends everything to the humanity which is surplus for a person. However, the materialism and greed for wealth is dominant in the current culture of the Muslim societies. It is depicted in the life style and in the emerging value system. Consequently, it is affecting the basic notion of the Islamic charity. 7. Conclusion Islamic concept of charity is much associated with the Muslim societies or Muslim association. It forms a moral economy and moral value system (give charity and worship to God) which strengthen the notion of close social networking of the Muslims. However, it does not neglect the humanity at large. It gives a due share to provide the help to the people of the world. The charity is given to the needy, poor, scholars, charity organizations and welfare of the world society at large. However, criticism to retain the Muslim charity among Muslim is not exclusive from the debate of the charity. Dominant point of view is in favour of the humanity rather than the welfare of the any specific community. Islamic charity begins from the Individual level. It creates the space for the state. However, it does not exclusive involve the state to regulate the charity. The charity in Islam is equally important to the worship of God. Islam emphasize the worship of God (right to obey God) and the service for the humanity (the rights of the people). It is the right of the people.

Athens V Sparta

The Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta were similar in that they both denied women basic rights, but they are more different because of their culture and political structures. In both city-states, their social structures featured women as minorities. However, their customs and concepts differ tremendously. Generally, Sparta had a very strict military-based state, while Athens focused on the fine arts. Politically, the two city states differed in that Athens had a democracy and Sparta had an oligarchy. Although the city-states had some similarities, they had vast differences.Athens and Sparta were similar when it came to their social structures. Women’s rights and responsibilities were one of the few areas in which they were alike. In Athens, women had many responsibilities at home. It was their job to care for kids and the house. Women also were in charge of taking care of the slaves if they happened to get sick or hurt. Although they couldn’t vote in Athens’ democracy, women could participate in religious festivals. In the city-state of Sparta, women also raised their children and took care of the house.Here, women were allowed to own their own property. All women had the responsibility of managing the estate, supervising the slaves and doing the finances. In Sparta, women had a duty to keep healthy so that they could bear a child that could eventually join the military. Since the women of Athens and Sparta were required to stay at home, the men were able to pursue cultural and military activities. This is extremely important to the cultures of both city-states because it influences how they developed and thrived.As you can see, the city states were very similar when it came to the responsibilities of women and their social structures. Athens and Sparta differed greatly in the way that their governments were set up. Sparta followed an oligarchy. An oligarchy is when the government is ruled by a small group of very powerful people. In S parta, older and more experienced men were chosen to be the leaders. The Council of Elders consisted of thirty men. All of the men in the council were at least sixty years of age or older. Sparta also had an assembly.It consisted of men that were thirty and older. There were five chief officials in Sparta that determined the final decisions made for the city-state. However, the government of Athens was very different. Athens had a democracy. This meant that the government was ruled by the people. They also had an assembly, but theirs consisted of free men that were eighteen years or older. In the democracy, all citizens could vote. Women were not included in the voting process. Athens had a council of five hundred men. These men proposed all of the laws.The democratic government in Athens provided more freedom for its citizens but did not provide the safety that the Spartan government had. It is important to understand that Sparta had an oligarchy because they valued experience over everyone ruling. This is important to understand because Sparta would eventually conquer Athens. Although Athens and Sparta were similar in their social customs, they were very different in the ways that their governments were set up. Athens and Sparta also differed when it came to their cultures.Generally, Sparta was a very strict city-state that focused almost all of its energy on building a strong military. Sparta rejected all outward displays of money and wealth. Spartans also did not spend any money on decorating their city. All boys, at the age of seven, were recruited and sent to a military school. There they learned to read, write, and use weapons. Many wives were required to go long times without seeing their husband and children. Although Athens had a stronger navy, the Athenians spent more time making their city beautiful.In Athens, they used League money to rebuild their city. They spent a lot of time and money to ensure that they pleased the gods by creating statues, b uildings and art. Athens focused on making music and poetry while Sparta did not. This is important because both city-states influenced other states in Greece by providing examples of art and military techniques. Overall, Spartans focused in maintaining a powerful military force while Athenians focused on more artistic causes. The two Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta were similar in that they both had social societies that favored men.Both civilizations didn’t believe women were equal to men as well. On the other hand, their cultures were very different. Sparta had a main goal of a strong military while Athens focused on art and music. Politically, Athens had a democracy and Sparta had an oligarchy. It is important for us to study the similarities and differences between the two city-states because it will enhance our understanding of how Athens was eventually defeated by Sparta. Clearly, Sparta and Athens had more differences than they did attributes in common. Bibliog raphy: Stearns book was used to gather information

Risk Assessment of Mercury

Introduction Methyl quicksilver is ranked in the top 10 groups of chemicals listed as environmental job globally and is important associated for public wellness issues8, 10. Published literature suggests that methyl quicksilver has negative effects on encephalon development and the ingestion of this compound by pregnant adult female may finally take to important neurological defects in neonates13. The purpose of this study is to discourse the neurological inauspicious effects of methyl quicksilver on new-borns based on major epidemiological and carnal surveies and cipher the effects of altering dietetic methyl quicksilver exposure from fish ingestion in a France. In peculiar an direction to pregnant adult females to non devour tuna is expected to cut down the sum of MeHg consumption and consequence in IQ additions for the person and the society. Hazard IdentificationWe will analyze Mercury. Mercury exists in different signifiers, either in elements ( or metals ) as inorganic signifier ( occupational exposure ) ; and organic signifier such as methyl quicksilver ( dietetic exposure )1.Mercury, a natural component in H2O, dirt and air, is considered by WHO as one of the top 10 groups of chemicals of major public wellness concern1.Methyl Mercury chiefly targets the nervous system during its early development1. That is why fetuss and immature kids are largely vulnerable to Methyl Mercury’s inauspicious wellness effects. Methyl Mercury is oxidised in the encephalon and causes chronic diseases2,3,4,5. Specifically, in the Faroe Islands, people consume whale meat at really high rates. The population was found to be extremely contaminated and the research workers associated europsychological shortages at 7 old ages of age Developmental delays with the MeHg exposures6. The Faroe Islands and New Zealand surveies provide grounds of a negative association between MeHg in seafood consumed by pregnant adult females and the neurodevelopmental capablenesss of the siblings at the age of 4 and 6-7 old ages old. Even in low concentrations of methyl quicksilver, the effects are little but still there6,8 The Seychelles survey did non observe any important associations between developmental trials and MeHg exposure. The survey measured concentration of hair quicksilver in pregnant female parents and so evaluated the development capablenesss of kids at 6.5, 19, 29 and 66 months of age7. From the survey there is no grounds about the association of MeHg exposure and DDST-R where was showed in pilot survey7. The New Zealand survey associated exposure to Methyl quicksilver with mental development of kids at the age of 4 and 6-7 old ages old8. The survey shoes a high exposure group consisted of 200 kids ( average exposure = 9?g/g ) at the age of 6 to 7 old ages old, lower mental capablenesss were observed as opposed to the Control group with lower exposure rates.. Several bureaus around the universe examined the grounds sing MeHg toxicity. A comprehensive list of proposed ( full name ) RfDs is presented in table 1 ( adapted from WHO ) . The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives ( JECFA ) recommends that a steady-state day-to-day consumption of MeHg lower than 1.5 ?g/kg organic structure weight/day would non ensue in toxic concentrations of the compound in maternal blood. Table I:Country / OrganizationReference Level ( ?g MeHg/kg bw/week )Year adoptedJoint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives1.62003Japan2.02005Canada1.41997USA0.72001Nederlands0.72000Exposure appraisalAssorted epidemiological surveies were conducted in which research workers assed the degree of exposure of the female parents of the kids. Noteworthy attending is given in the survey in the Faroe Islands6, in Seychelles7and in New Zealand8. The population in Faroe Islands was found to be extremely contaminated of approximately 2 milligrams methyl mercury/kg6. The surveies we examined6,7,8and the study for WHO1, suggest that the population is chiefly exposed through seafood ingestion. Island populations such as the population of Faroe Islands and New Zealand is expected to be characterized by high fish ingestion and later to high methyl quicksilver exposure, . Typical degrees of fish ingestion vary between 1?g/kg/day and 9?g/kg/day ( Faroe ) and sometimes higher ( 10?g/kg/day in New Zealand ) . For the range of this work, the population of involvement is pregnant adult females in France. In order to gauge the exposure to MeHg from fish ingestion a brief literature reappraisal was performed and several surveies that reported pregnant adult females MeHg intake from fish in France and neighbouring states were identified. The fish ingestion in France is non every bit high as island states and it is estimated that an mean Gallic adult female consumes about three helpings of fish/seafood per hebdomad14. Sing Gallic pregnant adult females, published literature provides some grounds about their exposure to MeHg from dietetic beginnings. This grounds is based on modelled dietetic exposure based on fish ingestion and mean MeHg degrees in fish. Pouzaud et al reported a average consumption of 0.67ug Hg/kg biological warfare /week15while Crepet et Al reported a average consumption of 0.4767ug Hg/kg biological warfare /week but for adult females of childbearing age14. Similar surveies across Europe have besides reported MeHg consumptions for pregnant adult females or adult females of childbearing age and are all presented in Table I1. The exposure of the population of involvement is expected to be modifiable as ingestion of different sorts of fish may ensue in different consumption of MeHg. This is based on the concentration of MeHg that is bioaccumaulated otherwise in different species. A non-exhaustive literature hunt has provided some declarative degrees of MeHg in of import comestible fish species in France or the Mediterranean ( Table III ) . Table I1:WriterYearStatePopulationMeHg Intake ( ?g/kg biological warfare /week )Juan Antonio et Al.2008SpainPregnant adult females0.88Franceois Pouzaud et Al.2010FrancePregnant adult females0.67Crepet et Al.2004FranceWomans of childbearing age0.47Table Three:WriterYearStateFish SpecieMeHg concentration ( ?g/ gr moisture weight )Juan Antonio et Al.2008SpainBluefin Tuna0.71Swordfish0.33Tuna0.19Squid0.11Seabass0.06Seabream0.07Franceois Pouzaud et Al.2010FranceBluefin Tuna0.39SwordfishN/ATunaN/ASquidN/ASeabass0.076Seabream0.076Crepet et Al.2004FranceBluefin TunaSwordfishTuna0.813Squid0.055Seabass0.094SeabreamSalmon0.034Oyster0.034Sardine0.062Seafood0.033Dose-Response AnalysisThe relationship between IQ degrees in neonates and MeHg degrees in maternal hair used in this work is borrowed from the work by Rice et Al16which is based the information provided by the major epidemiological surveies that were conducted in the island populations of Faroe, Seycheles and New Zealand that examined the IQ alteration in neonates6,7,8based on a figure of neurodevelopment trials Cohen et Al21and Axelrad et Al18besides synthesized the consequences of the three island surveies utilizing adept opinion and Bayesian analysis severally and their resulting estimations are reflected in the hair quicksilver to I Q coefficient that Rice et Al have used. This coefficient can be translated as the ensuing addition in IQ points in kids from a lessening of 1ug/gr of maternal hair MeHg concentration. Since maternal hair MeHg degrees were used as the biomarker of exposure in the above mentioned surveies and such information is non available for the population of involvement, an ‘intake to blood coefficient’ and a ‘blood to hair’ coefficient are used that can use on the already known for Gallic pregnant adult females MeHg consumption estimations. These parametric quantities were besides foremost reported by Rice et Al16and were based on physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling that has been either performed by Rice et Al or have been described antecedently.19, 20Hazard Characterisation – DecisionAll computations have been performed utilizing Analytica 4.5. A complete list of variables and their values that were included in the Analytica theoretical account are presented in table IV. Figure 1 nowadayss an overview of the theoretical account. The basic premises that influence the theoretical account are:A control option of â€Å"Do non eat Tuna ( when pregnant ) † will ensue in 50 % decrease in the consumption of MeHg. This premise is based on the high degrees of MeHg in assorted tuna species compared to other fish species. The precise degree of 50 % is non evidence-based.There is no rectification for the possibility of a neurotoxicity threshold. It is assumed that neurotoxicity due to foetal exposure to MeHg is without a thresholdOverall this study concludes the ensuing IQ additions for the Gallic society is expected to be lognormally distributed with a median of 98 IQ points. Considerable uncertainness characterizes this consequence. The minimal IQ points addition could be every bit low as 4600 and every bit high as 790000. In this work, the possible inauspicious effects from cut downing the sum of fish consumed and the subsequent decrease of ?-3 fatty acids has non been evaluated Figure 1: Illustration of Analytica Model Table Four: Main Variables used in the Analytica theoretical account#Variable NameVariable ValueUnit of measurementsDescription1Control Scenario––Index2Prior Intake of MeHg from fishMin 0.47 Max 0.88ug Hg/kg bw/ hebdomadUniform Distribution based on Rice et Al. ( )3Efficiency of control option1 or 0.5UnitlessDecrease in MeHg intake after implementing the control option5Intake to blood coefficientMean: 0.6 STDDEV: 0.09ug Hg/L per ug Hg/dayNormal Distribution as Rice et Al reported. ( )6Blood to hair coefficientMedian: 0.21GSD: 1.85ug Hg/ gr per ug Hg/LLognormal Distribution based on Rice et Al. ( )7Dose response Function: hair to IQ coefficientMedian: 0.3 GSD: sqrt ( 3 )IQ platinums per ug MeHg/grLognormal Distribution based on Rice et Al. 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